16.emergency-landing-options. Emergency Landing Options
When an in-flight emergency forces an unplanned descent, the pilot's most important task—after maintaining aircraft control—is selecting a landing site that gives the best chance of a survivable touchdown. The Airplane Flying Handbook recognizes three categories of emergency landing, and the option chosen depends on the nature of the emergency, available altitude, terrain, and the airplane's remaining performance.
The Three Categories of Emergency Landing
- Precautionary landing — A premeditated landing, on or off an airport, when further flight is possible but inadvisable. Examples include deteriorating weather, lost-position with low fuel, gradually failing engine, or pilot incapacitation concerns. The airplane is under full control, and the pilot has time to choose a good field, inspect it from low altitude, and configure for a normal full-flap landing at minimum speed.
- Forced landing — An immediate landing, on or off an airport, made necessary by the inability to continue further flight. The classic example is complete engine failure in a single-engine airplane. The pilot must trade altitude for distance and arrive over a chosen field with enough energy to flare.
- Ditching — A forced or precautionary landing on water. Considerations include sea state, wind, swell direction, and the proximity of vessels.
Priority of Action
Regardless of category, the universal sequence is:
- Aviate — Establish best glide speed (V_BG, typically published as a single value at max gross weight; reduce slightly when lighter). Trim for hands-off glide.
- Navigate — Turn toward the most suitable landing area while you still have altitude to maneuver.
- Communicate — Squawk 7700, transmit MAYDAY on the current frequency or 121.5, state intentions and souls on board.
- Troubleshoot — Run the engine-failure/restart flow (fuel selector, mixture, carb heat/alternate air, primer in/locked, magnetos, master, fuel pump).
- Secure & Prepare — If a restart is not achieved, secure the engine, brief passengers, unlatch doors before touchdown, and tighten belts.
Selecting a Field
When no airport is reachable, the pilot evaluates landing sites using the priority of survivability over salvage. Key field-selection factors:
- Wind — Land into the wind whenever practical to reduce groundspeed and impact energy.
- Surface — Smooth, firm surfaces such as plowed fields, harvested crops, or pasture are preferred. Avoid tall crops, rocks, ditches, and standing water.
- Slope — Land uphill if possible; uphill slope shortens the rollout dramatically. Avoid landing downhill or across a steep crosswise slope.
- Length — Estimate at least the airplane's normal landing distance plus a margin. A short, smooth field beats a long, rough one.
- Obstructions — Trees, wires, fences, and poles on the approach path. Power lines are difficult to see; assume any clear strip between two poles has wires across it.
- Accessibility — Proximity to roads, dwellings, or rescue services after touchdown.
A useful mnemonic is WSSLO: Wind, Surface, Slope, Length, Obstructions.
Glide Range Management
A typical light single glides about 1.5 nautical miles per 1,000 feet above the surface at best glide speed in a clean configuration. The pilot should establish a 360° mental picture from cruise altitude and identify candidate fields before an emergency. With a chosen field in mind, plan to arrive over a key position (high key) at roughly pattern altitude abeam the intended touchdown point. From high key, fly a circular pattern to low key (abeam touchdown at about 1,000 ft AGL), then turn base and final, adjusting flaps and slips to manage glide path. Configure flaps and gear late—energy can be dissipated, but it cannot be retrieved.
Touchdown Technique
The goal is to arrive at the landing area at the slowest possible airspeed consistent with positive control, in a level or slightly nose-high attitude, with wings level. If a collision with obstacles is unavoidable, distribute the impact by striking objects symmetrically (e.g., between two trees so wings absorb energy), at the slowest controllable speed. Maintain control all the way through the impact—"fly the airplane as far into the crash as possible."
Ditching Specifics
In ditching, land parallel to the primary swell (along the swell crest), accepting a crosswind component if necessary. With high winds and small swells, land into the wind. Touch down in a slightly nose-high, power-on (if available) attitude at minimum sink rate. Brief passengers on flotation gear and exit procedures, and unlatch doors before water contact to prevent jamming on impact.
Example: Engine failure at 4,500 ft AGL in a Cessna 172. Pitch for 68 KIAS, trim, and immediately scan for fields within roughly 6.5 NM (4.5 × 1.5). Pick the best option upwind quadrant, run the restart flow, declare on 121.5 and squawk 7700, brief, then fly the high-key/low-key pattern to a flaps-40 touchdown into the wind.